Artwork depicting Pyrrho of Elis, the hermit-like founder of Pyrrhonian Skepticism.
Questions on the existence of true knowledge had plagued many Greek philosophers, but it was during the Hellenistic period when Skepticism, divided into two competing branches, emerged to openly cast doubt on the possibility of knowing anything at all. The disciples of Pyrrho of Elis, a contemporary of Alexander the Great, sought to achieve inner tranquility through indifference and lack of opinion, while the Academic Skeptics modeled themselves after Socrates, looking to engage in a perpetual state of inquiry as a way to better reach the truth.
Sources Used:
Primary
Lives of the Eminent Philosophers – Diogenes Laertius
Outlines of Pyrrhonism – Sextus Empiricus
Preparation for the Gospels – Eusebius
Fragments – Heraclitus
The Apology – Plato
Life of Alexander – Plutarch
Secondary
Ancient Scepticism (Ancient Philosophies) – Harald Thorsrud
The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Scepticism
The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy
The Greek Experience of India: From Alexander to the Indo-Greeks – Richard Stoneman
The Greek Buddha: Pyrrho’s Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia – Christopher I. Beckwith
Popkin, R.H. “David Hume and the Pyrrhonian Controversy”. The Review of Metaphysics, 1952, 6(1), pp 65-81
A fresco of Cleopatra VII, painted shortly after her death (and may indeed be one of the most accurate depictions of the queen we have). Source
The legacy of Cleopatra, the last independent queen of Ptolemaic Egypt and arguably the most famous figure of the Hellenistic period, is not just limited to the works of William Shakespeare. Joining us today is Yentl Love, creator and writer of the website “The Queer Classicist”, who talks about the reception of Cleopatra (Qalūbaṭrah) in the Islamic tradition.
Title Theme: Seikilos Epitaph with the Lyre of Apollo, played by Lina Palera
Yentl Love: www.thequeerclassicist.com Original Article Twitter Instagram Book Recommendations
-“Egyptology: the Missing Millennium – Ancient Egypt in Medieval Arabic Writings” Okasha el-daly
-“Cleopatra” Duane Roller
-“Cleopatra: a Life” Stacy Schiff
-“S.P.Q.R.” Mary Beard -“Themes in Roman Society and Culture: An Introduction to Ancient Rome” Matt Gibbs, Milorad Nikolic & Pauline Ripat -“Themes in Greek Society and Culture: An Introduction” Allison Glazebrook and Christina Vester
A bust of Chrysippus of Soli, arguably the greatest contributor of Stoic philosophy after the founder, Zeno. Source
Arguably the most popular of the Hellenistic philosophies, the Stoic movement, with its emphasis on reason and self-control, attracted several famous figures such as the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, the Macedonian king Antigonus II Gonatas, and Seneca the Younger. Believing that wisdom is the highest good and can be achieved through philosophy, the Stoics encouraged the rejection of emotion and the embrace of rationality as a way to live in accordance with nature, which was granted an innate sense of orderliness and reason thanks to the embodiment of the cosmos by a rational deity.
Title Theme: Seikilos Epitaph with the Lyre of Apollo, played by Lina Palera
References: Primary:
Lives of Eminent Philosophers – Diogenes Laertius
Meditations – Marcus Aurelius
Enchiridion – Epictetus
De Natura Deorum – Cicero
Secondary: “Stoicism (Ancient Philosophies)” – John Sellars
“Stoicism: A Very Brief Introduction” – Brad Inwood
“The Cambridge Companion to The Stoics” – Edited by Brad Inwood
“Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy” – R.W. Sharples
“The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy” – Edited by K. Algra, J. Barnes, J. Mansfeld and M. Schofield
“From Alexander to Actium” – Peter Green
A marble bust reportedly depicting Epicurus (341 – 270 B.C.), the founder of the Epicurean school of philosophy.
Named after the eponymous philosopher Epicurus (341 – 270 B.C.), the Epicurean school was one of the more popular if controversial doctrines to emerge during the Hellenistic period. Arguing that “Death is nothing” and denying the existence of the afterlife, Epicurus and his followers sought to explain the world through empirical observation and the famous theory of atoms and the void, looking to live the best life by embracing pleasure and avoidance of pain.
Title Theme: Seikilos Epitaph with the Lyre of Apollo, played by Lina Palera
References: Primary Lives of Eminent Philosophers – Diogenes Laertius
Letter to Herodotus – Epicurus
Letter to Menoeceus – Epicurus
On the Nature of Things – Lucretius
De Natura Deorum – Cicero
Theogony – Hesiod
Life of Sulla – Plutarch
Letter to William Short (October 31st, 1819) – Thomas Jefferson Secondary “Epicureanism (Ancient Philosophies)” – Tim O’Keefe
“Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy” – R.W. Sharples
“The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism” – Edited by James Warren
“The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy” – Edited by K. Algra, J. Barnes, J. Mansfeld and M. Schofield
“From Alexander to Actium” – Peter Green
The consul Publius Claudius Pulcher orders the tossing of the Sacred Chickens overboard, shortly before the disastrous Battle of Drepana.
By 255 B.C., the Carthaginians were in dire straits, having faced the prospect of a Roman invasion of North Africa. However, the talented leadership of Xanthippus of Lacedaemonia and Hamilcar Barca managed to stave off defeat for another 15 years, but the unrelenting nature of the Romans in spite of military and natural disasters would bring an end to the First Punic War.
Title Theme: Seikilos Epitaph with the Lyre of Apollo, played by Lina Palera
Timeline:
256 B.C.:
-Battle of Cape Ecnomus, Roman victory
-Consul Marcus Atilius Regulus lands with 15,000 strong Roman force in Africa
-Xanthippus of Lacadaemonia given command of Carthage’s defenses 255 B.C.:
-Battle of Tunis/Bagradas River: Carthaginian army led by Xanthippus routs the Roman invasion force, capturing Regulus and leaving only 2500 alive
-Xanthippus either leaves Carthage or is murdered 254 B.C.:
-Roman fleet smashed in storm, losing 284 out of 364 ships 253 B.C.:
-Roman fleet hit with another storm, losing an additional 150 ships 251 B.C.:
-Battle of Panormus: Consul Lucius Caecilius Metellus defeats Carthaginians near the city of Panormus 250 B.C.:
-The Romans begin the siege of Lilybaeum, building another 200 ships 249 B.C.:
-Battle of Drepana: Roman consul Publius Claudius Pulcher launches naval force of 210 ships to capture Drepana. The defending commander Adherbal manages to secure a Carthaginian victory and captures at least 93 Roman ships, Pulcher is heavily fined in Rome 248 B.C.:
-Roman fleet smashed once again by a storm, temporary ban on shipbuilding. King Hiero of Syracuse no longer pays war indemnity
-Hamilcar Barca given command of Carthaginian forces in Sicily 247 B.C.:
-Hamilcar lands in Sicily, setting up operations at Hercte (Mount Castellacio?) and raids the countryside of the island and Southern Italy 243 B.C.
-Hamilcar leaves Hercte, and moves to Eryx 242 B.C.
-Consul Gaius Lutatius Catulus oversees the reconstruction of 200 ships using private loans, and retrains the fleet to blockade Hamilcar 241 B.C.
-Battle of Aegates Islands: March 10th, the Roman fleet led by Lutatius smashes the Carthaginian navy, Carthage sues for peace.
-Treaty of Lutatius officially ends the war, and requires Carthage to evacuate Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, along with a war indemnity of 3200 talents to be paid over 10 years.
Battle of Drepana (249 B.C.)
By Vercingetorix~commonswiki – Goldsworthy, Adrian (2006). The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265–146 BC. London: Phoenix. ISBN 978-0-304-36642-2. Page 119., CC BY-SA 1.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=731085
References Primary
The Histories – Polybius
The Histories – Cassius Dio
Library of History – Diodorus Siculus
The Histories – Zonaras
The Punic Wars (Fragments) – Appian
Periochae – Livy
De Natura Deorum – Cicero
Lives of Eminent Commanders- Hamilcar
Roman Census Collection – https://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/romancensus.html Secondary
“Carthage Must Be Destroyed” – Richard Miles
“Unplanned Wars: The Origins of the First and Second Punic Wars” – Dexter Hoyos
“The Fall of Carthage” – Adrian Goldsworthy
“Rome versus Carthage: The War at Sea” – Christa Steinby
Blackwell Companion to the Punic Wars – Edited by Dexter Hoyos
Dantas, D. “Xanthippus of Lacadaemonia: a foreign commander in the army of Carthage”. Centro de História da Universidade de Lisboa (Journal For Ancient History) 2017
Dr. Nikolaus Overtoom joins us to discuss the Parthians and the Arsacid dynasty, a group that emerged from the Central Asian Steppes to come into conflict with the Seleucids and Hellenistic kingdoms during early-middle 3rd century B.C. We talk about Dr. Overtoom’s work regarding early Parthian history, the adaptability of a steppe society ruling over a heavily urbanized Greco-Persian one, and his upcoming book “Reign of Arrows: The Rise of the Parthian Empire in the Hellenistic Middle East“, which seeks to answer the question of how the Parthians managed to turn from small nomadic tribe to one of the most powerful empires of the ancient world.
Title Theme: Seikilos Epitaph with the Lyre of Apollo, played by Lina Palera
Reign of Arrows: The Rise of the Parthian Empire in the Hellenistic Middle East – 30% Off Discount Code [AAFLYG6] for pre-orders through Oxford University Press (release date May 1st, 2020) – Link to page on Oxford University Press Website
The First Punic War, lasting from 264 to 241 B.C., was the longest uninterrupted war in the ancient world, fought between the Roman Republic and the Phoenician city-state of Carthage. Exploring the origins of the conflict is essential, tracing the earliest instances of Romano-Punic relations to the intervention of Rome on the behalf of the Mamertines in 264. While the Romans may be able to hold their own in land engagements, will they be able to meet the awesome nautical power of Carthage and emerge victorious in the clash off Cape Ecnomus, the largest naval battle in the ancient world?
Title Theme: Seikilos Epitaph with the Lyre of Apollo, played by Lina Palera
Timeline: 509 B.C.
-First treaty arranged between Rome and Carthage 340’s-300’s B.C.
-Second treaty arranged between Rome and Carthage
-Invasion of Africa by Agathocles of Syracuse (310-307)
-Second Samnite War between Rome and Samnium (326-304) 286 B.C. -Campanian mercenaries formerly in the service of Agathocles seize the city of Messana, become known as the Mamertines 280 B.C.
-Pyrrhus of Epirus, King of Molossia, invades Italy to defend Tarentum from Rome 278 B.C.
-Pyrrhus invades Sicily and clashes with the Mamertines and Carthage
-Third treaty arranged between Rome and Carthage 276 B.C.
-Pyrrhus retreats back to Sicily 275 B.C.
-Pyrrhus defeated at Beneventum by the Romans, and returns to Epirus
-Hiero II becomes tyrant of Syracuse 272 B.C.
-Rome takes control of Tarentum and the last Greek cities of Italy 268 B.C.
-Mamertines defeated by Hiero at Loganus River, who declares himself King of Syracuse
-Carthage saves the Mamertines, but occupies Messana 265 B.C.
-The Mamertines send an embassy to Rome calling for help against the Carthaginians, Rome agrees. 264 B.C.
-Consul Appius Claudius Caudex takes a consular army of 40,000 soldiers across the Strait of Messina and enters Sicily. Mamertines eject Carthaginian garrison from Messana.
-Carthaginian quinquereme beached upon the shore, captured intact by the Romans
-First clash against Rome and the Syracusans ends in a Roman victory, Caudex returns to Rome 263 B.C.
-Consuls Manius Otacilius Crassus and Manius Valerius Maximus move into Sicily, and prepare to besiege Syracuse. King Hiero II sues for peace. 262 B.C. – Consuls Lucius Postumius Megellus and Quintus Mamilius Vitulus besiege the city of Akragas, which is defended by Hannibal, son of Gisgo
-Hanno the Elder arrives with 56,000-strong army to reinforce Hannibal, taking Herbessus and cutting off Roman supply lines
-Battle of Agrigentum: Romans manage to defeat Hanno’s army, then capture and sack Akragas (renamed Agrigentum) while Hannibal escapes 261 B.C.
-Rome constructs a fleet of 100 quinqueremes and 20 triremes 260 B.C.
-Consul Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio ‘Asina’ (“jackass”) is captured off the Lipari islands by Carthaginan fleet
-Battle of Mylae: Consul Gaius Duilius engages the Carthaginian fleet (130 ships) of Hannibal son of Gisgo off the coast of modern Milazzo, deploys the “corvus” for the first time, capturing or sinking 50 Punic ships.
-Hannibal, son of Gisgo, is crucified by Carthaginian officials 256 B.C.
-Plans for an African invasion headed by Marcus Atilius Regulus
-Battle of Cape Ecnomus: 330 Roman ships commanded by M.Regulus and Lucius Manlius Vulso clash with 350 Carthaginian vessels lead by Hamilcar and Hanno the Elder. Roman victory, with over 90 Punic ships captured or sunk at a loss of 24 of their own.
Helpful Images: Battle of Ecnomus
Diagram of the Battle of Ecnomus, drawn by Muriel Gottrop
Corvus Diagram/Interpretation:
References: Primary The Histories – Polybius
Life of Pyrrhus – Plutarch
The Histories – Cassius Dio
Library of History – Diodorus Siculus
The Histories – Zonaras
Periochae – Livy
Natural History – Pliny the Elder Secondary “A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War” – Gary Forsythe
“Carthage Must Be Destroyed” – Richard Miles
“Unplanned Wars: The Origins of the First and Second Punic Wars” – Dexter Hoyos
“The Fall of Carthage” – Adrian Goldsworthy
“Rome versus Carthage: The War at Sea” – Christa Steinby
Blackwell Companion to the Punic Wars – Edited by Dexter Hoyos
“Mediterranean Anarchy, Interstate War, and the Rise of Rome” – Arthur M. Eckstein
Polybius of Megalopolis (~200 – 118 B.C.) was a Greek nobleman and high ranking member of the Achaean League, whose political career was prematurely ended when he was taken as a political hostage to Rome. Rather than disappearing into obscurity, Polybius took it upon himself to compose a “universal” history, so as to explain to his fellow Greeks how the Romans managed to conquer the inhabited world in only 50 years. In this episode, we are going to spend time discussing the life and works of Polybius, who provides us with not only the best written account from the Hellenistic period, but is also one of the finest historians the Greco-Roman world has ever produced.
Title Theme: Seikilos Epitaph with the Lyre of Apollo, played by Lina Palera
References: Primary The Histories – Polybius
On Verbal Composition – Diodorus Siculus
The Peloponnesian War – Thucydides
The Histories – Herodotus
Life of Brutus – Plutarch Secondary Cambridge Companion to the Roman Historians
Polybius’ Histories (Oxford Approaches to Classical Literature)
“Mediterranean Anarchy, Interstate War, and the Rise of Rome” – Arthur M. Eckstein
“Polybius and Roman Imperialism” – Donald Baronowski
“Cultural Politics in Polybius’s Histories” – Craige B. Champion
“War and Imperialism in Republican Rome: 327 – 70 BC” – William V. Harris
A representation of the Punic goddess Tanit, the patron of Carthage. Source: WitR/Shutterstock.com
The city-state of Carthage , founded by Phoenician settlers in modern Tunisia during the 9th century B.C., was a premier power of the western Mediterranean. Stretching their reach from North Africa into Spain, Sicily and Sardinia, the Carthaginians managed to establish a formidable economic empire thanks to their nautical prowess, eventually leading to their clash for dominance with the up-and-coming Roman Republic. In this episode, we will trace Carthage from its foundation to the 1st Punic War, and look at issues such as its government, human sacrifice, and its complicated relationship with the Greco-Roman world.
Title Theme: Seikilos Epitaph with the Lyre of Apollo, played by Lina Palera
A map showing the various extents of Carthaginian territory/influence. While they never closely governed the more distant territories and colonies, these areas would recognize Carthage as a superior and pay tribute for protection and trading access.
A reconstruction of Ancient Carthage, including the cothon, a double harbor built during the early-mid 2nd century B.C.. The cothon allowed for the storage of approximately 170 warships on the outer rim, and about 140 packed together in the inner island.
Another angle of the reconstructed cothon of Carthage.
A Carthaginian shekel, the front depicting the goddess Tanit and the reverse a palm tree.
A statue of the god Melqart. Near Eastern and Egyptian influences can be seen, but the inclusion of the lionskin (and in some cases, a club) indicates a fusion between Melqart and the Greek Demigod Heracles
References: Primary
Epitome – Justin
Library of History – Diodorus Siculus
The Histories – Polybius
Politics – Aristotle Secondary
“Carthage Must Be Destroyed: The Rise and Fall of an Ancient Civilization” – Richard Miles
“The Carthaginians (Peoples of the Ancient World)” – Dexter Hoyos
“In Search of the Phoenicians” – Josephine Quinn
“The Punic Mediterranean: Identities and Identification from Phoenician Settlement to Roman Rule” – Edited by Josephine Quinn and Nicholas Vella
“The Fall of Carthage” – Adrian Goldsworthy
Schwartz et. al “Skeletal remains from Punic Carthage do not support systematic sacrifice of infants” 2010. PLoS One 5(2)
Cartwright, Mark. “Carthaginian Government.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia, 15 Jun 2016. Web. 25 Feb 2020.
Though initially a critical failure upon release, subsequent re-cuts of the 2004 “Alexander” film by director Oliver Stone has been more positively received, and it has been praised as one of the most historically accurate films to depict the ancient world thanks to the historical consultant Robin Lane Fox. In this loosely-structured episode, we are joined by Trevor Culley of the “History of Persia Podcast” to give our thoughts on the movie and analyze it from both a technical and (more importantly) a historical perspective.
Title Theme: Seikilos Epitaph with the Lyre of Apollo, played by Lina Palera
The Hellenistic Age Podcast 